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<p>Coal bed methane is a form of natural gas that is absorbed in a coal seam. To extract it a well is drilled into the coal seam and water is pumped out to reduce the pressure in the coal seam. Due to the pressure reduction, natural gas with a very high methane content is released from the coal bed. The natural gas is collected on top of the well and, if required, sent to a separator to remove abundant water, after which it is sent to a gas treatment plant. The produced water is either re-injected or sent to a water treatment plant.</p>
<p>The KROHNE portfolio includes a variety of instruments and solutions that are optimally equipped for coal bed methane applications. Take for example our ultrasonic and electromagnetic flowmeters that, because of the lack of rotating parts that would be subject to wear, guarantee excellent long-term performance on produced water. Available up to 2500# (PN420) these meters are also used for well water injection systems. For natural gas we offer a dedicated portfolio of instruments ranging from wet gas Venturi-based metering systems up to highly accurate Custody Transfer flowmeters and metering systems.</p>


Coal bed methane

Coal bed methane in natural gas production

<p>Large volumes of natural gas are transported using high pressure transmission pipelines, delivering to power plants, LNG liquefaction plants, large industrial users and city gates. Compressor stations along the pipeline maintain the flow, and the line pressure - at around 60bar: these stations normally use gas from the pipeline to power the compressor. If the gas is to be used in a local gas grid, the pressure would be reduced to around 8 bar at the city gate in a pressure regulating station. </p><button class="expand-hidden-content">Show more</button><p>The gas transported in these typically long distance pipelines can be from several different suppliers, and delivered to various separate users – and the pipeline itself can be operated by a separate company. High accuracy flow measurement is extremely important: the large volumes that are transported means that any inaccuracy would represent a significant financial error, and cannot be tolerated. In the case of international transactions, for example when gas from Russia is supplied into Europe, the transmission pipelines run through several countries, across borders. Natural gas measurement systems are found at each pipeline inlet and delivery point, at international border crossings, and also at compressor stations where this is required by the set-up of the pipeline. </p><p>Pipeline measurement systems usually consist of multiple meter runs in parallel. Each meter run has at least one flowmeter - it is quite common that two meters are installed in series to cross-check each other. Additionally there can be a master-duty Z-configuration of the pipework on the gas metering skid to enable in-line verification against a master meter. Systems can be supplied as a skid or can be constructed directly on site. Besides measurements of flow, pressure and temperature, often a gas chromatograph is installed at each metering station to confirm the calorific value and compressibility of the gas. Additional equipment may include analyzers for dew point, sulphur, mercury and trace oxygen. </p><p>KROHNE has vast experience with natural gas pipeline flow measurement systems. Their ultrasonic and Coriolis flowmeters and metering systems were specifically developed to meet the high accuracy needed for natural gas custody transfer duty. Fully engineered metering skids and analyzer houses are supplied. In addition KROHNE is an established supplier of pressure reduction stations and pipeline leak detection systems for gas pipelines. </p>

Custody Transfer, compressor and pressure reduction stations within the production of natural gas

Custody Transfer, compressor and pressure reduction stations

Custody Transfer, compressor and pressure reduction stations in natural gas production

<p>Drilling fluid, or ‘mud’, is used to remove well cuttings, control the formation pressures, maintain wellbore stability and provide cooling and lubrication to the drill bits, throughout the process of drilling a well. Accurate measurement of drilling mud flow is critical to the efficiency of the drilling process, and the measurement must tolerate the density changes of the drilling mud, and occasional voids and gas bubbles. Subsequently, during casing operations, cement is used to fix the steel casing pipes in place, and cement flow and density measurement is essential to control the process. KROHNE OPTIMASS mass flowmeters are typically used for both these measurements, as the straight tube design tolerates the harsh conditions and abrasion produced by the drilling mud and cement flows. They also tolerate the high pressures, measure mass flow despite the fluid density changes, and manage the presence of occasional gas bubbles, using the specially developed Entrained Gas Management (EGM) feature.</p><button class="expand-hidden-content">Show more</button><p><br></p><button class="expand-hidden-content">Show more</button><p></p><p>In shale rock formations, once the drilling pipes have been completed, the oil or gas is released by hydraulic fracking. Water, containing sand and dissolved chemicals, is injected into the borehole, and, particularly once the required pressure is achieved, the fracking fluid flow is measured and controlled. KROHNE OPTIFLUX electromagnetic flowmeters designed for very high pressure operation (2500psi) are used for this duty. The shale oil and gas is released from the rock when the fracking pressure is reduced, and production flow rates monitored using shale gas and shale oil fracking flowmeters.</p>

Drilling, cementing and hydraulic fracturing within the production of natural gas

Drilling, cementing and hydraulic fracturing

Drilling, cementing and hydraulic fracturing in natural gas production

<p>In a gas processing plant, raw natural gas is converted into pipeline quality dry natural gas by removing impurities such as solids, water, carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>), hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S), mercury and higher molecular mass hydrocarbons such as natural gas liquids (NGLs). With many different configurations possible, a generalised version of a gas processing plant is shown here.</p>
<p>KROHNE offers a full portfolio of instrumentation for gas plants, ranging from straightforward pressure or temperature transmitters to high accuracy volume or mass flow measurement of auxiliary process media - such as amine, glycol and nitrogen. For natural gas and natural gas liquids (NGL) we offer process and Custody Transfer ultrasonic flowmeters and Coriolis mass flowmeters, extending up to fully engineered turn-key metering systems.</p>

Gas processing plant

Gas processing plant in natural gas production

<p>The production and separation processes used in the extraction of oil or gas have a by-product, known as produced water. This comes from water entrained within the oil, and condensing out of the gas: additional water arises when water injection is used to aid the extraction of oil, particularly as the field matures. Significant percentages of water will be present when the field is becoming exhausted, and accurate flow measurement data for produced water is essential. </p><button class="expand-hidden-content">Show more</button><p><br></p><button class="expand-hidden-content">Show more</button><p></p><p>Such produced water is considered as industrial waste, and needs treatment to remove contaminants before disposal. The techniques used will vary according to whether the water is to be re-injected into the actual production well, or to some different underground formation. If the water is to be used for surface irrigation, evaporation ponds, or for return to the sea, different water treatment processes will be applied, to meet the stricter environmental regulations necessary. </p><p>KROHNE has extensive experience in supplying flowmeters, analytical equipment and instrumentation for the water and waste industry, and has developed a complete package of produced water treatment instrumentation. This includes equipment for the analysis, flow measurement, chemical dosing and other processes used in produced water treatment systems - including cyclonic separation, filtration, de-gassing, chemical treatment and flotation. </p>

Produced water within the production of natural gas

Produced water

Produced water in natural gas production

<p>Usually a central system of large separator vessels will accept the multiphase product pipeline flows coming from separate wellheads, to produce the separate outputs as single phases of oil, gas and water, plus a slurry of sand or other solid sediments in water. The output of each valuable phase is measured, using Coriolis or ultrasonic custody transfer flowmeters, before transfer to the downstream processing plant or storage reservoirs. </p><button class="expand-hidden-content">Show more</button><p></p><button class="expand-hidden-content">Show more</button><p>Individual well measurement flow data is required to provide information for reservoir monitoring, and can help optimize well production. To achieve this, individual well flow streams are diverted to a test separator, where flow volume measurements of separated water, oil and gas streams are measured: in the gas stream, a wet gas flow meter is used to compensate for significant water content in the gas. These readings are used for well management, to adjust water injection rates or gas lift pressures, and for allocation measurement. The test flows are then returned to the main production separation systems. An alternative to the test separator for mixed oil, water and gas flows is now available with the introduction of the KROHNE Multiphase well test flowmeter, which can give separate flow data for the two liquid phases and measure the gas void fraction (gvf) from a single meter in the flowline. </p><p>Throughout the separation process KROHNE flowmeters and sensors are used to improve process and operational efficiency, for example in using TDR radar level gauges to control the separator interface levels, and in the control of degassing in the final crude oil storage reservoirs. </p>

Reservoir measurement within the production of natural gas

Reservoir measurement

Reservoir measurement in natural gas production

Natural Gas in the oil & gas industry